Assyria was a prominent civilization in ancient Mesopotamia which at its peak ruled over the largest empire till that point in history. Known as the Neo-Assyrian Empire, it lasted from 911 BCE to 609 BCE. Works of art from this period are considered among the finest artistic achievements of ancient Mesopotamia. These include palace reliefs, rock reliefs, royal steles, ivory figurines and cylinder seals. Lion Hunt of Ashurbanipal, Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III and Khinnis Rock Reliefs are some of the most famous Assyrian artworks. Here is a summary of the types, history and characteristics of Assyrian art.
Table of Contents
The Key Questions
The Assyrians are an indigenous group native to Mesopotamia. Modern Assyrians descend directly from the ancient Assyrians and may be found all over the world. Their history begins with the formation of the city of Assur around 25th century BCE. Ancient Assyrian history is usually divided into three periods: Old Assyrian (2025 to 1364 BCE), Middle Assyrian (1363 to 912 BCE) and Neo-Assyrian (911 to 609 BCE).
The best known Assyrian art dates to the Neo-Assyrian period. It was the time when the Neo-Assyrian empire dominated Mesopotamia and nearby regions. Mesopotamian art reached an unprecedented level of creativity and skill during the time. Monumental sculptures as well small-scale decorative arts produced under the patronage of the Assyrian court were truly exceptional. They may be considered as one of the most extraordinary achievements in the history of art.
S1 – Mesopotamia Art Types
S2 – Characteristics
The Assyrian court artists based their work on the older traditions in Mesopotamian art. However, they began exploring larger and more ambitious themes; and deployed these themes at a truly grand scale. The sculptures were carved exquisitely and combined historical narrative with repeating symmetrical patterns. These were designed to decorate the royal space.
This great development in artworks in the Neo-Assyrian era may be divided into two main types. The first were colossal architectural sculptures and incredible wall reliefs; with minuscule detailed content; that decorated the royal palaces. The second were standing monuments, steles, obelisks, and majestic rock reliefs which were installed throughout the Neo-Assyrian Empire. These acted as statements of power and imperial authority.
Neo Assyrian narrative art is marked by an increasing interest in realistic depiction, even at the smallest scale in the large compositions. This may be seen in the palace reliefs of Sennacherib and Ashurbanipal. The minutest details are captured here as if the artists are faithfully recording events that took place in the Neo-Assyrian Empire.
The depictions capture in graphic detail various subjects including scenes of battle, physical torture and deportation of populations. The importance of God and the king diminishes in these artworks as compared to earlier times. The main focus shifts to the empire and its military might. Kingly power is shown through hunting scenes, building projects and military victories.
The narration in the scenes in palace reliefs is more complex as smaller self-contained scenes may be scene in the larger composition. Remarkably, in some compositions, the linear narrative is abandoned. It is replaced by more complex distribution of episodes like circular positioning of events. These scenes are among the most sophisticated narrative depictions in Mesopotamian art.
Lions are a common motif in Assyrian art as hunting lions was an important royal activity. Lion hunts of Ashurbanipal are famous examples of this. Another common motif are bulls. The bull was an important symbol in Mesopotamian cultures. Winged bulls and lions were sometimes combined with a human head to create the creature known as Lamassu. Artworks of these divine creatures were used at gateways in order to guard the space from evil.
S3 – Palace Reliefs
Relief sculpture had been in use in Mesopotamia from a long time. However, beginning at the time of Ashurnasirpal II, Neo Assyrian artists developed a new sculptural form. This was the continuous relief sculpture which stretched along the palace walls. It usually carried a narrative which followed along the walls to its conclusion.
A form of gypsum was used for the reliefs, and they were carved using iron and copper tools. As stone is easily eroded, it is assumed that the reliefs were protected by varnish and paint. The Neo-Assyrian palace reliefs reflect the epic vision of the empire. More importantly, they are among the greatest achievements of Mesopotamian narrative art.
Two themes dominate the relief sculpture in Neo Assyrian palaces. First is long narrative scenes of war or of hunting, while the second is courtly heraldic scenes depicting rituals. The war scenes focus on a number of things including experiences of soldiers, the mundane camp life and the brutalities of war. The king is shown to be powerful but not divine. He is depicted at the same scale as others and may only be identified though his headdress.
Though Assyrian war reliefs are more famous, the courtly scenes encompass a large portion of the palace reliefs. They often depict the king and the courtiers surrounded by winged genies or bird-headed anthropomorphic beings. These supernatural genies are shown participating in the rituals. They were placed in the scenes as they supposedly protected the king and the courtiers from evil and illness.
S4 – Rock Reliefs
Relief sculpture in Neo-Assyria was also created on rocks. These rock reliefs were carved way up in the mountains of Assyria as well as throughout their vast empire as far west as Lebanon. These reliefs may be seen as a projection of Neo-Assyrian power and appropriation of the terrain for the empire. However, they are difficult for the human viewer to reach and thus might also be a way of harnessing the elementary forces of nature.
Some of the Neo-Assyrian rock reliefs were carved in low relief at high altitudes. Others were cut into rocks close to water sources and have been carved so deep that they are almost statues in the round. Years of weathering has taken a toll on these remarkable artworks. However, it is still possible to make out the winged human-headed lamassu, the anthropomorphic figures and the gods protecting the water source to the cities.
The best-known rock reliefs of the Neo-Assyrian Empire are the Khinnis Reliefs. Khinnis is an archaeological site in the Kurdistan Autonomous Region of northern Iraq. It features a series of rock-cut reliefs that face the River Gomel. They celebrate the northern canal system built by Sennacherib to carry water to his capital city of Nineveh and its surroundings. The main panel depicts the king with the two major Assyrian deities, Ashur and his wife Mulissu.
S5 – Royal Steles
Like in the previous eras, royal steles were set up in Assyrian cities. A new type of royal stele was widely used in the Neo-Assyrian Empire. It consisted of a large smoothed double-sided slab of stone with an arched top. Its most common iconography was the king standing in a gesture of prayer with divine emblems in front of him and above him. These image-monuments were known as “image of kingship”.
These type of steles were set up throughout the empire, at times near temples but also elsewhere. They always had inscriptions about the king related to his noble deeds, his heroic acts and his piousness. As mentioned earlier, this was combined with the image of the king, overseen by the gods. These steles were thus word-image combinations glorifying the king.
An example is the stela of Shamshi-Adad V, which shows the king extending his raised hand towards five small symbols. Each of these symbols represent a god. Another famous example is the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III. It has scenes which show the vassal kingdoms pay tribute to the Assyrian king. This is complimented by cuneiform script detailing the king’s victories.
S6 – Ivory Figurines
Numerous finely carved ivory figurines have been found at Assyrian palaces. Ivories were made from both hippopotamus and elephant tusks. Apart from artworks, they were also used to make small objects like boxes, combs etc. Neo-Assyrian ivories may be categorized into three types: Assyrian style, Syrian style and Phoenician style.
The Assyrian style usually depict Assyrian royal figures and iconography. They are marked by designs being incised with sharp lines onto flat ivory plaques. Assyrian ivory artisans created figurines which were stylistic, decorative and figurative. There characteristic artworks were narrative scenes modeled in low-relief and animal friezes with openwork panels.
The Syrian style ivories may be distinguished from their deep carving and rounded modeling. They often depict naked female figures and supernatural winged creatures. While North Syrian artists carved in a high relief style, the South Syrian artisans had a style which is regarded as hybrid of North Syrian and Phoenician styles.
Phoenician style ivories combine Egyptian motifs with Near Eastern iconography. They are superbly carved and the most highly prized. They employed a strong use of color and many of their designs have Phoenician letters on the back side, probably to act as a guide to assemble the objects. Phoenician ivories are mostly carved in high relief with openwork designs and poised figures.
S7 – Cylinder Seals
Neo-Assyrian cylinder seals were made of a variety of materials including serpentine, carnelian and harder stones like jasper and chalcedony. The seals from the period are characterized by intricate designs and high-quality craftsmanship. They were often used by elites as symbols of status and power.
The mythical imagery of the previous eras continued in this period too. New themes on cylinder seals were similar to the imagery of relief sculpture of the time. The finest seals of the period also had emphasis on the musculature of the figures as seen in reliefs. One of the major new themes was worshipers in front of divine figures mounted on hybrid beasts, similar to the ones on rock reliefs.
Main Sources
S2:
Bahrani, Zainab. (2017). “Mesopotamia – Ancient Art and Architecture”. Thames & Hudson. pp 225–253.
Muzdakis, Madeleine. (Dec 27, 2020). “What Is Ancient Assyrian Art? Discover the Visual Culture of This Powerful Empire”. My Modern MET.
S3:
Bahrani, Zainab. (2017). “Mesopotamia – Ancient Art and Architecture”. Thames & Hudson. pp 225, 232, 233.
Trustees of the British Museum. (3 Aug, 2011). “Assyrian Reliefs”. World History Encyclopedia.
S4:
Bahrani, Zainab. (2017). “Mesopotamia – Ancient Art and Architecture”. Thames & Hudson. pp 264, 265.
Bonacossi, Daniele Morandi. (30 Oct, 2014). “Deciphering Khinnis”. World Monuments Fund.
S5:
Bahrani, Zainab. (2017). “Mesopotamia – Ancient Art and Architecture”. Thames & Hudson. pp 259, 261.
Muzdakis, Madeleine. (Dec 27, 2020). “What Is Ancient Assyrian Art? Discover the Visual Culture of This Powerful Empire”. My Modern MET.
S6:
Bahrani, Zainab. (2017). “Mesopotamia – Ancient Art and Architecture”. Thames & Hudson. pp259.
Patterson, Marga. (18 Jul, 2023). “A Luxurious Desire: Ancient Near Eastern Ivory Carvings”. DailyArt Magazine.
S7:
(Dec 23, 2024). “Cylinder Seals in Ancient Mesopotamia: History and Significance”. World History Edu.
Bahrani, Zainab. (2017). “Mesopotamia – Ancient Art and Architecture”. Thames & Hudson. pp268.