Mesopotamia had a rich history of art dating from the prehistoric period till the time it was conquered by the Persian Empire in 6th century BCE. Despite the complex history of the region over this long period, the art of Mesopotamia retained a fairly constant character. There were three main types of artworks produced: relief sculpture, freestanding sculpture and cylindrical seals. Mesopotamian art had a massive impact on the art of the succeeding periods in both east and west. Since its rediscovery in the west, it has also influenced modern artists. Here is an overview of Mesopotamian art including its types, history, characteristics, purpose and more.
Table of Contents
The Key Questions
Mesopotamia is the name given to a historical region in Asia which is regarded as one of the cradles of civilization, along with Indus Valley and Egypt. In present-day terms it includes Iraq and parts of Iran, Turkey, Syria and Kuwait.
The earliest known developments in the region began in the prehistoric era as long as 10,000 BCE. The first major civilization to develop there was Sumerian around 4,000 BCE. It was followed by other Bronze Age cultures like Akkadian, Babylonian and Assyrian empires. These were replaced in the Iron Age by Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian empires. It finally came to an end when the Persians conquered the region in 539 BCE.
S1 – Types
S1.1 Cylindrical Seals
Cylinder seals were used in Mesopotamia to validate documents and authenticate packages of goods. They were used by both men and women; and acted as signatures. Images were carved in reverse on the seals so that when the stone was rolled onto soft clay it left a positive impression of the design. It was common to have more than one rolling of the seal stone and thus the design was impressed in stretches of repetition.
Today these cylinder seals are considered an important component of Mesopotamian art. A plethora of them have been discovered from the region. Many of the seals display intricate designs which have been carved by expert sculptors. The subject on the seals varies from focusing on deities and the ruling class to scenes of animals, daily activities etc. Apart from being valuable from artistic point of view, they also inform us about the life and values of the people living in the period.
S1.2 – Sculpture
In Mesopotamia, sculpture was created in both relief and three-dimensional form. The materials used include clay; metals like copper and bronze; and stones like alabaster and gypsum. By the time of the Akkadian Empire, Mesopotamian sculptors used rich narrative imagery, and the depictions became more lifelike.
Relief Sculpture
Relief sculpture is a work of art that projects outwards from a two dimensional background, typically a wall or a pedestal. It is divided into types depending on the amount that the artwork projects from the surface. While high relief approaches three-dimensional art, low relief is more like a two-dimensional drawing.
Freestanding Sculpture
Also known as sculpture in the round, freestanding sculpture is an artwork in which the figures are presented in complete three-dimensional form. It may be viewed from all sides giving the viewer different perspectives. It is not attached to a flat background as is the case in relief sculpture. The main types of freestanding sculpture are statues, busts, and sculptural groups.
S2 – History
S2.1 Prehistoric
In keeping with prehistoric art in other regions, painting on walls; and sculpture in stone and clay was done in Mesopotamia during the period. As people shifted from hunter-gatherer lifestyle to permanent settlements in the Neolithic era, there were significant developments in art. Among other things, wall paintings were done in houses and pots were painted. Another important development was that of the stamp seal. It began to be used in Mesopotamia in 6th millennia BCE.
It is important to note that certain Neolithic works were created in Mesopotamia that were not common in other regions. These include the murals painted on walls of rooms at Catal Huyuk by around 7,200 to 6,000 BCE. Their importance lies in the fact that they are among the few examples of representational art found from that period.
The mother goddess figurine was a popular motif. Numerous such clay figurines were created in northern Mesopotamia. They depicted females with exaggerated breasts and thighs; and no detailing of hands and legs. These famous figurines are known as the Halaf figurines, named after the site where they were found in abundance.
The last prehistoric period in Mesopotamia is known as the Ubaid period. It lasted from approximately 5,000 to 3,800 BCE. During it, terra-cotta figurines began to be placed in burials. They depicted nude male and female figures with painted or decorated bodies. Their heads are elongated, and their eyes are shaped like a coffee-bean.
S2.2 Sumerian
The Sumerian civilization was the first major civilization in Mesopotamia. It flourished from before 4,000 BCE. The Uruk period in Sumer (4,000 – 3,100 BCE) saw the development of finely carved monumental sculptures. It also saw the emergence of visual narratives in art, large scale freestanding sculpture and relief carving. Cylinder seals, one of the key features of Mesopotamian art, were developed around 3600 BCE in the Uruk Period.
Uruk period was followed by Early Dynastic period (2,900 – 2,334 BCE). The historical public monument, also known as victory steles, were created for the first time. Among the best-known Mesopotamian artworks, they are carved in relief, and text is usually inscribed on them. Also, depictions of people began to be created in art, not limiting representational art to deities.
The Neo-Sumerian (2112 – 2004 BCE) artists went back to the Early Dynastic period instead of following the art of the intermediate Akkadian Empire. The Neo-Sumerians went back to focusing on the pious acts of the king rather than focusing on military might and warfare. Statues of supernatural creatures were made which include bovines with human heads.
S2.3 Akkadian
Akkad was a region in Mesopotamia whose inhabitants spoke the Akkadian language. King Sargon and his descendants established the Akkadian Empire (2,334 – 2,193 BCE). Art of the period saw an unprecedented focus on naturalistic details. This new interest in correct representation is a key characteristic of Akkadian art. Metal statues began to be made using the hollow cast lost wax method. This is the first known occurrence of this method.
A very large number of cylinder seals survive from the Akkadian Period. The level of skill in carving cylinder seals reached unprecedented heights. The naturalism attained in the minute carvings was unparalleled in the ancient world.
S2.4 Babylonian
Babylonia was the most influential region in Mesopotamia for two periods known as the Old Babylonian Empire (1894 – 1595 BCE) and the Neo-Babylonian Empire (626 – 539 BCE). While previous genres continued, artworks were now accompanied by lengthier texts as evident in the famous Codex Hammurabi.
The technique of glazed-brick relief sculpture was developed into a monumental form during the Neo-Babylonian era. This was used to decorate the walls of the city. More hard stones were used in Babylonian cylindrical seals. The technical expertise of Neo-Babylonian seal cutters in carving small designs on hard stones is unparalleled in Mesopotamian art.
S2.5 Assyrian
Assyria was a prominent civilization in Mesopotamia which at its peak ruled over the largest empire till that point in history. Ancient Assyrian history is usually divided into three periods: Old Assyrian (2025 to 1364 BCE), Middle Assyrian (1363 to 912 BCE) and Neo-Assyrian (911 to 609 BCE). Neo-Assyrian artworks are considered among the finest artistic achievements. These include palace reliefs, rock reliefs, royal steles, ivory figurines and cylinder seals.
Neo-Assyrian artists started exploring larger and more ambitious themes; and deployed these themes at a truly grand scale. Their art is marked by an increasing interest in realistic depiction, even at the smallest scale in the large compositions. This may be seen in the palace reliefs of Sennacherib and Ashurbanipal.
S3 – Rediscovery
It is no coincidence that the advent of archaeology occurred around the same time as the innovation of the modern institute of museum. Ancient artifacts suddenly became important as they were displayed in the newly established museums in Europe like the British Museum in London and the Louvre in Paris.
By late 18th century CE, European travelers began exploring the remains of ancient civilizations including Mesopotamia. One of the first among them was Claudius James Rich, an Englishman in the service of the East India Company. His examination of the site of Babylon in 1811 is regarded as the starting point of Mesopotamian archaeology.
Arab and Persian scholars had already described some of the ancient cities of Mesopotamia and they knew that the script found in these cities was ancient. However, they did not decipher this script. German scholar G. F. Grotefend partially deciphered the cuneiform wedge-shaped script of Mesopotamia in early 1800s. His work was completed by English scholar Henry Rawlinson and others.
This increased interest in ancient Mesopotamia. In the 19th century, many European excavators began exploring Mesopotamian sites for artifacts and these were then taken to museums in Europe. This was a turning point as archaeologists began studying the remains of the ancient civilizations and documenting their finds with precise measured drawings and early photography. This went a long way in establishing the importance of archaeology.
S4 – Characteristics
The Art of Mesopotamia had a fairly constant character despite the complex history of the region. The two dominant themes were: art that showcased and propagated the rulers of the time; and art that narrated important events like victories in battles. Thus, functionality and symbolic meaning were given preference over aesthetics.
The depiction of power and authority was an important aspect of artworks propagating the rulers. Thus, hieratic scale was often used to indicate the importance of the king, i.e. his higher status is shown through his larger size. This may be seen in the famous Victory Stele of Naram-Sin, where he is separated from the soldiers by his larger size and the open space around him.
Mesopotamian art was also concerned with abstract ideas. These ideas include how images can have an agency of their own that impacts the world around them. In keeping with the huge importance of religion in Mesopotamia, many of their artworks were concerned with the nature of gods and how to represent the divine visually.
Inscriptions were common in Mesopotamian art. These were integral to the artworks and were part of the design. The artists paid attention on the beauty of the written text and on where it was to be placed. The name of the statue and the person represented were also paid attention to. It can thus be called as a word-image artwork which combined both forms.
Statues in Mesopotamia often had the purpose of performing tasks perpetually on behalf of the person represented. These statues had names as early as the Sumerian period. The act of naming was, therefore, a vital part of a ritual that imbued life in the statue of the person depicted. Due to this close tie, one may categorize these statues as portraiture.
In the western tradition, close resemblance between the sitter and the image may be a prerequisite for terming an image a portrait, like in the Renaissance. However, this theory is flawed as even in the Renaissance the portrait is often meant to subtly convey many attributes beside physical resemblance like profession, lineage, personality, virtues, etc. In abstract and modern art, this point is further diluted.
Mesopotamian artists didn’t imitate nature faithfully not because they lacked the ability. They, instead paid more attention to other details like depicting the sitter keeping in mind his rank, social stature, destiny etc. One may consider them more as images capturing abstract ideas rather than aiming to capture closely the physical appearance of the person.
S5 – Purpose
Appeasing the various Gods was one of the key aspects of Mesopotamian life through various rituals. By pleasing the Gods, the people of Mesopotamia believed they could have favorably weather conditions which in turn would lead to a good harvest, prevent floods, droughts etc. The art of Mesopotamia was many a times a visual extension of these religious beliefs and practices.
Akkadian term for representation is “salmu”. However, unlike representation, the aim of the salmu was not to be secondary to the person represented, but to take his or her place as a substitute. This is a central concept in Mesopotamian art. Thus, art was not a means of imitating the represented being but for creating artworks that participated in the real world with their own agency.
An example is the Statue of Ashurnasirpal II. Creating a statue was a complicated process which involved a ritual performed by the priests. Known as the mouth-opening ceremony, it was supposed to infuse life in the statue. After the ritual, the statue was considered a substitute of the king and sometimes even called by his name and not as salmu.
Statues were also believed to be a way of being immortal by ancient rulers. Thus, there were curses on statues which warned people. An example is a curse on a statue which states that if it is damaged by someone, gods will “tear out his foundations and make his seed come to end”. Destroying statues and erasing inscriptions on them was akin to destroying the immortality of the represented being.
Votive statues, which dedicate an image of oneself to the gods, are one of the most important artworks found in Mesopotamia. In the form of his statue, a person is continuously standing in front of the God in prayer. This offering is done due to the belief that the deity will reward the person and his family with something in return, like a long life or good health or divine favor.
Further prove of this are the statues from the reign of Gudea of Lagash, in southern Mesopotamia. Lengthy inscriptions on them make it evident that the statues were intended to stand in for the person being represented for all time. The inscription also state clearly that statues were considered to be animate things that could have desires, make plans, execute actions, etc.
The theft of statues is another key indication about the power of images for the people of Mesopotamia. The statues weren’t stolen for economic gain by the victorious side as in that case royal monuments wouldn’t be defaced and destroyed. Nor was it an act in the name of religion as the statues of gods were never harmed. Damaging the statue of royalty diminished the person depicted while stealing statues of gods removed the protection provided by it to the rival kingdom.
S6 – Influence
S6.1 In Ancient Times
Mesopotamian art went on to influence the art of the succeeding periods in the region as well as neighboring cultures. Its focus on narrative art and symbolic representation of power is seen in the art of ancient Persia, Greece and Rome.
In 6th century BCE, Cyrus the Great extended his huge Achaemenid Empire to Mesopotamia. However, the Persian dynasties allowed the local religious cults and art traditions to continue. Moreover, they actively participated in their maintenance. The Persians, who didn’t have a tradition of monumental royal art, adopted Mesopotamian visual arts for their own purpose. It was Assyrian art traditions that had the most impact on Persian iconography and monumental forms.
When Alexander arrived and Greek ruled followed, the art of Mesopotamia took a new turn. New hybrid styles combined the local preference of decorative patterning with Greek techniques like idealizing naturalism and smooth surfaces. The merging of the two may be termed as Greco-Babylonian art. An example of Greco-Babylonian style may be seen in the famous Ishtar statue. It combines Greek modeling and bodily ideals with Babylonian features and decorative patterns.
Mesopotamian art thus had a major influence on Persian and Greek art. The Greco-Babylonian style went on to influence art in the succeeding centuries. It was a turning point in art for not only these regions but also other parts of the world under the rule of the Persians and the Greeks. Some of the iconography and decorative details influenced by Mesopotamian art survived well into the medieval era in the art of both East and West.
S6.2 Since Rediscovery
Rediscovery of Mesopotamian art in the west had an impact on the artists of the period. For example, the British painter Dante Gabriel Rossetti created a painting titled Bacca Baciata in 1859, which seems to have been inspired from the Assyrian ivories found around the same time. This influence of Mesopotamian art continued in the Modern Art of the following century.
In 1936, the Museum of Modern Art held its opening exhibition which was titled “Cubism and Abstract Art”. In this exhibition, Mesopotamian art was put on the chart of Modernism and the influences behind it. Moreover, famous 20th century British sculptor Henry Moore categorically stated that Sumerian sculpture was one of the best achievements in art history. Influence of Mesopotamian art is evident in his work like his 1930 sculpture Girl with Clasped Hands.
Unsurprisingly, the influence of Mesopotamian art is also seen in the works of Middle Eastern artists. A famous example is the Tahrir or Liberty monument in Iraq. It takes the forms of Assyrian relief sculptures and cylinder seal narratives; and transforms them into a masterpiece which is both Modern and rooted in the region’s ancient history. Several contemporary Iraqi artists use Mesopotamian themes. These include Khalid al Rahal, Dia Azzawi and Hanaa Malallah.
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