George Washington (February 22, 1732 – December 14, 1799) was an American political and military leader who is often referred to as the Father of the United States due to his leading role in the formation of his country as well as in setting its foundation. Washington first gained renown for his military skills as a 21 year old while serving for Great Britain in the French and Indian War against France. When the American Revolutionary War began in 1775, he was made the Commander-in-Chief of the newly formed Continental Army. He soon became the de-facto leader of the revolt of the colonies against Great Britain. Through his able leadership, Washington transformed an inexperienced militia into a capable force that ultimately defeated the mightiest military power in the world. After securing victory for the United States, Washington resigned from his post. In 1789, Washington was unanimously elected as the first President of the United States. He served for two 4 year terms as president after which he relinquished his post. George Washington is widely regarded as one of the greatest leaders in the world. Know about his leadership in the Revolutionary War, his domestic and foreign policy as President; and more, through his 10 major accomplishments.
Note: This article was originally published on 07 June 2015
** GEORGE WASHINGTON’S ROLE IN THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR
French and Indian War Overview
Fought between 1754 and 1763, the French and Indian War is considered a part of the larger Seven Years War (1756 – 1763), which was fought between alliances led by Great Britain and France. In North America, the two empires sought to extend their influence in the region leading to the conflict. The French and Indian War pitted France, French colonists and their Native allies against Great Britain, the Anglo-American colonists and their Native allies. Conflict began with a series of incidents in the upper Ohio River valley, which was claimed by both the sides as their territory. The conflict ended with the signing of the Treaty of Paris on February 10, 1763. It resulted in Great Britain securing major territorial gains in North America. These included all French territory east of the Mississippi river, as well as Spanish Florida. However, the treaty returned Cuba to Spain.
Role of Washington In Initiating The Conflict
Washington had been appointed a major in the provincial militia by Virginian lieutenant governor Robert Dinwiddie in February 1753. The French had constructed a number of forts in the disputed upper Ohio River valley. In late 1753, Dinwiddie sent 21 year old Major Washington with a small expedition to order the removal of the French forts. The French, however, denied English claim to the region and refused to remove their forts. Washington returned to Dinwiddie informing him about the French reply. While tensions between the two sides rose, Dinwiddie promoted Washington to the rank of Lieutenant Colonel. On May 28, 1754, colonial militia from Virginia under the command of Washington became involved in a brief fight with the French forces in which the French leader Joseph Coulon de Jumonville was killed. This skirmish, known as the Battle of Jumonville Glen, was the first battle of the French and Indian War. Since Britain and France were not at war at this point, the battle is considered a contributing factor in the start of the larger Seven Years’ War, which spread as far away as Europe, Africa and India.
Surrender of Fort Necessity
After hostilities began with the Battle of Jumonville Glen, French commander at Fort Duquesne, Claude-Pierre Pecaudy de Contrecoeur, ordered Captain Louis Coulon de Villiers to attack Washington’s unit. He was given a force of nearly 600 French soldiers and Canadian militiamen. Expecting the French to retaliate, Washington fortified his position at Great Meadows. The fort he built was named Fort Necessity. Moreover, he had a force of around 400 men to counter the French. The French defeated Washington in the Battle of Fort Necessity and forced him to surrender his troops. This was the only time that Washington surrendered to an enemy in battle. Following his surrender, Virginian lieutenant governor Dinwiddie reorganized the Virginia Regiment into separate companies, with no ranks above captain. Instead of accepting a demotion, Washington resigned.
Organizing Retreat In The Battle of Monongahela
As war intensified, England decided that the best way to drive the French from the Ohio River Valley was to send in regular troops from the Royal Army. Consequently, Major General Edward Braddock led a force of 2,100 British Regulars and 500 colonial militia to take the French stronghold at Fort Duquesne. As he needed an aide with experience in the conflict, he offered the post of aide-de-camp to George Washington, which Washington accepted. On July 9, 1755, a French and Native American force suddenly attacked Braddock’s leading force of 1,300 men and completed routed them. Most of the senior British officers were killed or seriously wounded in the battle, known as the Battle of Monongahela. It was Washington who organized a somewhat orderly retreat helping many soldiers escape from the onslaught. During the battle, Washington had two horses shot from under him and his coat was pierced by four musket balls.
Capture of Fort Duquesne
Washington was hailed as the “hero of Monongahela” in Virginia for his work in organizing the retreat. The colonials gave him command of all Virginian forces and he was given the duty of defending the western frontier of the colony from Native American attacks. The next major action of Washington in the French and Indian War came under the command of Brig. Gen. John Forbes, who led a force of almost 2,000 British Regulars and 5,000 colonial militia to attack French strongholds at the Forks of the Ohio in 1757–1758. On November 24, 1758, Washington led a contingent of Virginians that occupied the smoking ruins of the abandoned Fort Duquesne. He then resigned from the military and went home to Mount Vernon. The expedition was thus his last activity in the French and Indian War.
Main Sources:-
“French and Indian War/Seven Years’ War, 1754–63”. U.S. Department of State.
Anderson, Fred. (2000). “Crucible of War: The Seven Years’ War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, 1754–1766”. p 30.
“Incidents leading up to the French and Indian War, 1753-1754”. U.S. Department of State.
“Ten Facts About George Washington and the French & Indian War”. George Washington’s Mount Vernon.
Ferling, John E. (1989). “The First of Men: A Life of George Washington”. p 26.
Knott, Stephen. “George Washington: Life Before The Presidency”. Miller Center.
Lengel, Edward (2005). “General George Washington”. p.60
#1 HE LED THE CONTINENTAL ARMY DURING THE AMERICAN REVOLUTIONARY WAR
Prior to the American Revolution, George Washington had served in the French and Indian War (1754–1763) on the side of Great Britain against France. During the conflict, he had gained valuable military experience including how to organize supply, how to command, how to build forts and how to manage subordinates. The American Revolutionary War broke out with the Battles of Lexington and Concord on April 19, 1775. At that point, the colonial revolutionaries did not have an army. Instead, they relied on local militia. The Second Continental Congress convened on May 10 with Washington attending as a delegate from Virginia. Congress created the Continental Army on June 14, 1775. The following day, George Washington was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the newly formed army. Apart from his previous military experience, Washington was given the post due to his stature and in the hope that a southerner leading what was then majorly an army of northerners would help unite the colonies. Washington would go on to lead the Continental Army throughout the course of the Revolutionary War.
Main Sources:-
“Ten Facts About George Washington and the French & Indian War”. George Washington’s Mount Vernon.
“George Washington’s Commission as Commander in Chief“. Library of Congress.
#2 HIS VICTORY AT THE BATTLE OF TRENTON WAS A PIVOTAL MOMENT IN THE WAR
Washington began his campaign of the Revolutionary War with the successful Siege of Boston (April 19, 1775 – March 17, 1776) forcing the British out of the city. He then moved his army to defend New York. He was soundly defeated at the Battle of Brooklyn on August 27, 1776; narrowly escaping a disaster by evacuating his army to Manhattan. He then suffered a series of defeats that forced his army to withdraw completely out of New York and to retreat through New Jersey and into Pennsylvania. Due to these defeats, the morale of the Continental Army was very low and many men had deserted. At such a juncture, Washington laid out a bold plan to attack the enemy forces stationed at Trenton in New Jersey. The American forces first made the famous crossing of the Delaware River, which was accomplished “with almost infinite difficulty”. They then swiftly defeated the German missionaries at Trenton capturing around 900 soldiers along with provisions; and arms and ammunition. Victory at the Battle of Trenton on December 26, 1776, is regarded as a pivotal movement of the Revolution due to its impact. Among other things, it boosted the morale of the Patriots and inspired people to join the forces. Washington followed up the success in Trenton with the capture of the British garrison at Princeton, New Jersey on January 3, 1777.
Main Sources:-
“Dark Hour For The Rebels”. Public Broadcasting Service.
“George Washington Crosses the Delaware”. National Geographic.
#3 HE LED AMERICA TO VICTORY IN THE DECISIVE SIEGE OF YORKTOWN
Washington lost the Battle of Brandywine on September 11, 1777. The British followed this by taking the American capital Philadelphia and forcing the Continental Congress to move to York, Pennsylvania. However, American victory at the Battles of Saratoga convinced the French that the colonies could win the war. This resulted in the formal Franco-American alliance in 1778. The activities of George Washington from late 1778 to 1780 were more diplomatic and organizational. On August 19, 1781, 3000 American soldiers under Washington and 4000 French soldiers under General Comte de Rochambeau began their march from Newport, Rhode Island, to Yorktown, Virginia. During this march, Washington send out fake dispatches to make British General Henry Clinton believe that his army was going to attack New York. This convinced Clinton that Lord Cornwallis in Yorktown was not in any danger. On September 28, 1781, Washington completed encircled Yorktown beginning the Siege of Yorktown. Off the coast, French Admiral François de Grasse strategically positioned his naval fleet to prevent escape or assistance through the sea. With his army’s supplies of food and ammunition exhausted; and no hope of escape; Cornwallis surrendered his army of some 8,000 men to General Washington on October 19, 1781. This effectively ended British hope of winning the war as they lacked the financial resources to raise a new army.
Main Sources:-
Freeman, Douglas S (1948–1957). “George Washington: A Biography”. pp. 5:152–155
Lengel, Edward (2005). “General George Washington”. p. 335
Davis, Burke (2007). “The Campaign that Won America”. p. 36.
“Surrender at Yorktown“. Library of Congress.
#4 HE LED U.S. TO VICTORY IN THE AMERICAN REVOLUTIONARY WAR
The Siege of Yorktown was the last major battle of the American Revolutionary War. It forced the British to negotiate an end to the conflict. In 1782, peace negotiations began and on September 3, 1783, United States was recognized as a free and independent nation after signing of the Treaty of Paris. On December 23, 1783, General George Washington resigned as commander in chief of the Continental Army and returned to civilian life. Washington performed a number of roles during the Revolutionary War. He directed the strategy of the war; turned the Continental army from inexperienced militia into a solid regular army; forced the politicians in Congress to support him; and emerged as the one who would lead the nation. Though he lost more battles than he won during the war, Washington never surrendered his army. He is also given credit for keeping a fighting force in the field through the difficult early years of the war. Washington faced an opposition which was a superpower and had much more military experience. In comparison, the Americans had neither a standing army nor a navy; and its soldiers had little to none military experience. Moreover, throughout the war, he had to deal with shortages of men, shoes, shirts, blankets and gunpowder. In leading America to victory against such odds is a phenomenal achievement of George Washington.
Main Sources:-
Blythe, Bob. “George Washington (1732 – 1799)”. National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior.
E. Ambrose, Stephen (November 2002). “Founding Fathers and Slaveholders“. Smithsonian Magazine.
** GEORGE WASHINGTON’S ROLE IN THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION
Background
After winning the French and Indian War against France in North America, the British decided to keep their army in the continent and to raise the cost of this army by taxing the colonists in its thirteen colonies. However, the colonists protested against this stating that the British parliament could not tax them as they had no representatives in the House of Commons. This “no taxation without representation” became a focal point in the conflict between Britain and the colonists ultimately leading to the American Revolutionary War.
Fairfax County Resolves
George Washington didn’t play a leading role in the early stages of the American Revolution. In 1767, the British parliament enacted the Townshend Acts which put an indirect tax on various items imported from Britain. George Washington called for Virginians to boycott British goods until the Acts were repealed. The British parliament repealed the Townshend Acts in 1770. However, in 1774, four Acts which became known as the Intolerable Acts, were passed by Great Britain. The Intolerable Acts were punitive legislation intended to suppress Boston by closing the port and placing it under martial law as Bostonians had been involved in the Boston Tea Party. Washington called the Acts “an Invasion of our Rights and Privileges”. He co-authored the Fairfax County Resolves with George Mason to protest against them. The Fairfax Resolves called for non-importation of British goods, support for Boston and the meeting of a Continental Congress.
First Continental Congress
56 delegates from 12 of the 13 colonies met from September 5 to October 26, 1774 at Carpenters’ Hall in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. George Washington was a delegate from Virginia in this First Continental Congress. It decided to boycott all British goods beginning December 1, 1774; and also sent a petition to King George III of Great Britain outlining the grievances of the colonies. George III ignored the petition and instead issued a Proclamation of Rebellion which stated that the colonies were “in rebellion” and the members of Congress were traitors.
Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army
Note: Covered in the main article also
The Battles of Lexington and Concord took place on April 19, 1775 initiating the American Revolutionary War. At that point, the colonial revolutionaries did not have an army. Instead, they relied on local militia. The Second Continental Congress convened on May 10 with Washington attending as a delegate from Virginia. Congress created the Continental Army on June 14, 1775. The following day, George Washington was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the newly formed army. Among other factors, Washington was selected due to his previous military experience while serving in the French and Indian War; and in the hope that a southerner leading what was then majorly an army of northerners would help unite the colonies.
Siege of Boston
On July 3, 1775, Washington assumed command of the main American army in Cambridge, Massachusetts, where it had been laying siege to British-occupied Boston after the Battles of Lexington and Concord. He immediately began a rigorous program to discipline the American army. In August 1775, Washington established a naval force to battle the British. In November, as the Siege of Boston became a stalemate, Washington send Colonel Henry Knox to bring the heavy artillery captured at Fort Ticonderoga. In late March, the cannon from Ticonderoga allowed the Continental Army to force the British out of Boston. Thus, after 11 months, the Siege of Boston led by Washington was a success.
Smallpox Inoculation
While the Boston Siege was taking place, Washington faced another challenge. In 1775, smallpox had arrived in Boston. A deadly disease in those times which killed around one in two victims. During the siege, Washington prohibited anyone from Boston from entering the military zone to prevent the spread of the virus. Thus, by immediately isolating anyone suspected of infection and limiting outside contact, Washington “prevented a disastrous epidemic among the Continental troops”. Washington had suffered from smallpox during his teenage. He was thus well aware of the dangers of the disease. As the epidemic spread, Washington ordered all troops to be inoculated. A controversial decision at the time when even the Continental Congress was against it. By the end of 1777, some 40,000 soldiers had been vaccinated. According to Historian Elizabeth Fenn, Washington’s decision “to inoculate the Continental forces must surely rank with the most important decisions of the war”.
Battle of Brooklyn
In January 1776, in a letter to Connecticut governor Jonathan Trumbull, Washington had mentioned that he had “undoubted intelligence” that the British planned to shift the focus of their campaign to New York City, the capture of which “would give them the Command of the Country and the Communication with Canada.” Thus, after the successful Siege of Boston, Washington moved his army to defend New York. On August 22, 1776, a British force of almost 30,000 landed on the south beaches of Long Island. They attacked on August 27 successfully defeating the 10,000 American troops in the Battle of Brooklyn. British General William Howe then prepared for a siege as he felt the Americans were trapped. However, taking advantage of a storm, Washington evacuated his entire army to Manhattan without the loss of supplies or a single life. The surrender of his force might have spelled doom for the American cause. His escape thus allowed them to live to fight another day.
Battle of Trenton
Note: Covered in the main article also
After the Battle of Brooklyn, Washington’s Continental army suffered a series of defeats that forced it to withdraw completely out of New York and to retreat through New Jersey and into Pennsylvania. The morale of the army was very low and many men had deserted. At such a juncture, George Washington laid out a bold plan to attack the enemy forces stationed at Trenton in New Jersey. The American forces first made the famous crossing of the Delaware River, which was accomplished “with almost infinite difficulty”. They then swiftly defeated the German missionaries at Trenton within an hour. Victory at the Battle of Trenton on December 26, 1776, is regarded as a pivotal movement of the Revolution due to its impact. Among other things, it boosted the morale of the Patriots and inspired people to join the forces.
Battle of Brandywine
Washington followed up the success in Trenton with the capture of the British garrison at Princeton, New Jersey on January 3, 1777. The unexpected successes at Trenton and Princeton drove the British back to the New York City area. Washington’s performance at these battles received international praise with Frederick the Great, the ruler of the Kingdom of Prussia, writing: “the achievements of Washington [at Trenton and Princeton] were the most brilliant of any recorded in the history of military achievements.” In July, 1777, British General William Howe embarked on a campaign to take Philadelphia, the seat of the Continental Congress. Washington prepared his defense against Howe at Brandywine Creek. The two armies clashed at the Battle of Brandywine on September 11, 1777. Howe was victorious forcing Washington to retreat. Howe then took the American capital Philadelphia on September 26 forcing the Continental Congress to move to York, Pennsylvania. The failure of Washington to defend the capital brought on a storm of criticism from Congress.
Battles of Saratoga
Though he lost at the Battle of Brandywine, Washington sent critical support to General Horatio Gates, which helped in the American victory at the Battles of Saratoga. British General John Burgoyne had to surrender his entire force. More importantly, the comprehensive victory at Saratoga gave France the confidence that America could win the war and this resulted in the formal Franco-American alliance in 1778. The Battles of Saratoga are thus regarded as the turning point of the American Revolutionary War. The Northern strategy of the British had failed due to the Battles of Saratoga and they evacuated their troops from Philadelphia back to New York City in 1778 to strengthen the city’s defense against a possible Franco-American attack. The British now shifted their strategy to focus on the Southern theater. They had initial successes as they occupied Savannah, Georgia, in late 1778; and Charleston, South Carolina, in May 1779.
Siege of Yorktown
Note: Covered in the main article also
The activities of George Washington from late 1778 to 1780 were more diplomatic and organizational. His army faced numerous issues. It was undermanned, underfunded and underequipped. Due to this, he resisted calls for major expeditions, preferring to remain focused on the British presence in New York. Meanwhile, after capturing Charleston, British General Henry Clinton returned to New York, leaving the command in the south to Lord Charles Cornwallis.
On July 6, 1781, the American army and their French allies met near New York City. On August 19, 3000 American soldiers under George Washington and 4000 French soldiers under General Comte de Rochambeau began their march from Newport, Rhode Island, to Yorktown, Virginia. During this much celebrated march, Washington send out fake dispatches to make Clinton believe that his army was going to attack New York. This convinced Clinton that Lord Cornwallis in Yorktown was not in any danger.
On September 28, 1781, Washington completed encircled Yorktown beginning the Siege of Yorktown against a contingent of 9,000 British troops under Cornwallis. Off the coast, French Admiral François de Grasse strategically positioned his naval fleet to prevent escape or assistance through the sea. With his army’s supplies of food and ammunition exhausted; and no hope of escape; Cornwallis surrendered his army of some 8,000 men to General Washington on October 19, 1781. This effectively ended British hope of winning the war as they lacked the financial resources to raise a new army. The Siege of Yorktown was the last major battle of the American Revolutionary War. It forced the British to negotiate an end to the conflict. In 1782, peace negotiations began and on September 3, 1783, United States was recognized as a free and independent nation after signing of the Treaty of Paris.
Assessment
It is beyond doubt that Washington had a daunting task ahead of him when he took over as the Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army. He faced an opposition which was a superpower and had much more military experience. In comparison, the Americans had neither a standing army nor a navy; and its soldiers had little to none military experience. Moreover, throughout the war, he had to deal with shortages of supplies of men, shoes, shirts, blankets and gunpowder. In leading America to victory against such odds in itself is a great accomplishment.
There are different views among historians regarding the ability of George Washington as a General. Some believe that he was not a good strategist and didn’t have the ability to take quick decisions. They instead credit the French for making the strategy that led to America’s triumph. Washington is however praised for his bold decisions including his successful surprise attacks on the garrisons at Trenton and Princeton. These victories restored patriot morale in one of the war’s darkest periods for the Patriots. Though he lost more battles than he won during the war, Washington never surrendered his army. He is also given credit for keeping a fighting force in the field through the difficult early years of the war. Moreover, the diplomatic and political skills of Washington in addition to his strength of character and the respect he commanded set him apart from others as a general.
Main Sources:-
“Stories From The Revolution”. National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior.
Freeman, Douglas S (1948–1957). “George Washington: A Biography”. pp. 174–176
Randall, Willard Sterne (1998). “George Washington: A Life”. p. 262.
“George Washington Papers: Timeline: American Revolution”. Library of Congress.
“Continental Congress, 1774–1781”. Office of the Historian. U.S. Department of State.
“George Washington’s Commission as Commander in Chief”. Library of Congress.
Lawler, Andrew. (April 16, 2020). “How a public health crisis nearly derailed the American Revolution”. National Geographic.
Barron, James (Aug. 26, 2016). “The Battle of Brooklyn: A Loss That Helped Win the Revolution”. The New York Times.
“Dark Hour For The Rebels”. Public Broadcasting Service.
“George Washington Crosses the Delaware”. National Geographic.
Leckie, Robert (1993). “George Washington’s War: The Saga of the American Revolution.” pp. 333–335; p 333.
Ketchum, Richard M (1997). “Saratoga: Turning Point of America’s Revolutionary War”.
“Revolutionary War: Southern Phase, 1778 – 1781”. Library of Congress.
Freeman, Douglas S (1948–1957). “George Washington: A Biography”. pp. 5:152–155.
Lengel, Edward (2005). “General George Washington”. p. 335.
Davis, Burke (2007). “The Campaign that Won America”. p. 36.
“Surrender at Yorktown”. Library of Congress.
Ferling, John (January, 2010). “Myths of the American Revolution”. Smithsonian Magazine.
Blythe, Bob. “George Washington (1732 – 1799)”. National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior.
#5 HE WAS UNANIMOUSLY ELECTED THE FIRST PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES
After the Revolutionary War, Washington served as the president of the 1787 Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia. The historic result of the Convention was the crafting of the United States Constitution. From December 15, 1788 to January 10, 1789, the presidential electors were chosen in each of the states. Article II of the Constitution gave two votes to each of the electors. With 69 electoral votes, Washington won the support of each participating elector. He was thus unanimously elected the first president of the United States. On April 30, 1789, at Federal Hall in New York City, the first capital of the United States, Washington took the presidential oath of office. In the 1792 United States presidential election, Washington was elected to a second term, again by a unanimous vote. In 1796, Washington declined to run for a third term of office, thus setting a precedent of a two-term limit which was followed till 1940 when Franklin D. Roosevelt broke the unwritten rule amid the Second World War. George Washington served as the first President of the United States from April 30, 1789 to March 4, 1797.
Main Sources:-
“Presidential Election of 1789”. George Washington’s Mount Vernon.
“On this day: Term limits for American Presidents”. National Constitution Center.
#6 THE BILL OF RIGHTS WAS PASSED DURING HIS PRESIDENCY
As United States was a fledgling nation when George Washington took over as President, he went on to establish several precedents. The Departments of State, War and Treasury as well as the office of Attorney General were established. Each was headed by a presidential advisor forming the four man cabinet of George Washington. The most important legislation passed during the presidency of George Washington was perhaps the Bill of Rights. Congress approved 12 amendments to the U.S. Constitution on September 25, 1789. 10 of the 12 proposed amendments became ratified by the requisite number of states and became collectively known as the Bill of Rights. Among other things, the bill guarantees civil rights and liberties to the individual, like freedom of speech, press and religion. It sets rules for due process of law and reserves all powers not delegated to the Federal Government to the people or the States. Several other important legislation were passed during Washington’s term including the following:-
Tariff Act of 1789
Signed into law by President Washington on July 4, it was the first major legislation passed after the ratification of the United States Constitution. It aimed to solve the pressing issue of how to raise revenue for the federal government. The act levied a 50¢ per ton duty on goods imported by foreign ships and 6¢ per ton on American owned vessels. To enable the federal government to collect these import duties, Congress also passed the Collection Act of 1789. This Act established the United States Customs Service to collect the tax.
Judiciary Act of 1789
Signed into law by President Washington on September 24, it established the federal judiciary of the United States. Among other things, it set the number of Supreme Court justices at six: one Chief Justice and five Associate Justices.
Bank Bill of 1791
Signed it into law on February 25, it established the first Bank of the United States.
Coinage Act of 1792
Signed into law on April 2, 1792, it created the United States dollar as the country’s standard unit of money, established the United States Mint, and regulated the coinage of the United States.
Naval Act of 1794
Signed into law on March 27, 1794, it authorized the creation of a fleet of six ships which eventually became the first ships of the present-day United States Navy.
Main Sources:-
“The Bill of Rights: What Does it Say?”. National Archives.
Miller, John C. (1960). “The Federalists: 1789-1801”. p. 19.
Bordewich, Fergus M. (2016). “The First Congress”. pp. 102–103.
“The First Bank of the United States”. Office of the Historian. U.S. Department of State.
Nussbaum, Arthur (November 1937). “The Law of the Dollar”. Columbia Law Review.
#7 HIS SUPPRESSION OF WHISKEY REBELLION ESTABLISHED AN IMPORTANT PRECEDENT
An excise tax on domestically distilled spirits, known as the “Whiskey Act”, became law on March 3, 1791. This taxation was violently opposed in western Pennsylvania with attacks on tax collectors and the formation of several well-armed resistance movements. The rebellion became known as the Whiskey Rebellion of 1794. George Washington summoned the militias of Pennsylvania, Virginia and several other states. He then personally took command of the 12,950 men in the build up to encourage them. The army marched into Western Pennsylvania in October 1794. The rebellion collapsed quickly with little violence and the resistance movements disbanded. In crushing the Whiskey Rebellion, Washington set a precedent that dissatisfied minorities can protest peacefully but cannot take arms against even the most unpopular official acts.
Main Source:-
Knott, Stephen. “George Washington: Domestic Affairs“. Miller Center.
#8 HE KEPT U.S. OUT OF FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WAR IN EUROPE
The foreign policy of the Washington administration was dominated by the French Revolution, which began in 1789. In 1792 war broke out in Europe between France and several European powers including Great Britain. Although there was pro-French sentiment in America, George Washington believed that the United States was too weak and unstable to fight another war. He thus issued the Proclamation of Neutrality on April 22, 1793 that declared the United States neutral in the war in Europe. The Proclamation was formalized into law by the Neutrality Act of 1794, which made it illegal for an American citizen to wage war against any country at peace with the United States. The Neutrality Act has been updated but remains in force till date. George Washington thus kept the young nation out of war and set a key precedent of America being neutral in foreign quarrels. Other important foreign policy successes of the Washington presidency include the Pinckney’s Treaty, which resolved territorial disputes between the United States and Spain.
Main Sources:-
Knott, Stephen. “George Washington: Foreign Affairs“. Miller Center.
“Neutrality Proclamation, 22 April 1793“. Founders Online. National Archives.
** GEORGE WASHINGTON PRESIDENCY: MAJOR SUCCESSES AND FAILURES
Domestic Policy Major Successes
Note: The first and third points have been covered in the main article also
- As United States was a fledgling nation when George Washington took over as President, he went on to establish several precedents. In fact, he wrote to James Madison: “As the first of everything in our situation will serve to establish a precedent, it is devoutly wished on my part, that these precedents may be fixed on true principles.” The Departments of State, War and Treasury as well as the office of Attorney General were established. Each was headed by a presidential advisor forming the four man cabinet of George Washington.
- In 1785, several Native American tribes formed an alliance to jointly deal with the United States. President Washington first instructed Brigadier General Josiah Harmar to deal with the threat posed by this Confederacy. However, Harmer was defeated in October 1790. The following year, another force under Major General Arthur St. Clair was routed by the Native Americans in the Battle of Wabash River. 632 American soldiers were killed or captured while 264 were wounded. Washington then turned to Revolutionary War veteran General “Mad” Anthony Wayne. Wayne spent months training his troops to fight using forest warfare in the style of the Native Americans. He then led U.S. to decisive victory at the Battle of Fallen Timbers on August 20, 1794 bringing an end to the Northwest Indian War. The Treaty of Greenville was signed in 1795 which opened parts to American settlement of what would become the states of Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Illinois and Wisconsin.
- An excise tax on domestically distilled spirits, known as the “Whiskey Act”, became law on March 3, 1791. This taxation was violently opposed in western Pennsylvania with attacks on tax collectors and the formation of several well-armed resistance movements. The rebellion became known as the Whiskey Rebellion of 1794. George Washington summoned the militias of Pennsylvania, Virginia and several other states. He then personally took command of the 12,950 men in the build up to encourage them. The army marched into Western Pennsylvania in October 1794. The rebellion collapsed quickly with little violence and the resistance movements disbanded. In crushing the Whiskey Rebellion, Washington set a precedent that dissatisfied minorities can protest peacefully but cannot take arms against even the most unpopular official acts.
Domestic Policy Major Failures
- During the Washington presidency, the Fugitive Slave Act of 1793 was passed which required all states, including those that forbid slavery, to forcibly return slaves who had escaped from other states to their original owners. It is to be noted that Washington was himself a slave owner. However, he is the only one of the nine presidents who owned slaves, to free all his slaves; in his 1799 will.
- George Washington was against the two party system. In fact, the Founding Fathers entirely omitted political parties from the new nation’s Constitution. However, despite his efforts, two competing factions formed within Congress during his presidency led by Alexander Hamilton, secretary of the treasury; and Thomas Jefferson, the secretary of state. This ultimately led to the nation’s first two political parties. Though there are alternate views on America’s two party system, it may be seen as a failure of Washington’s domestic policy. This is due to the fact at that time, the founding fathers wanted to avoid parties, including Washington.
Foreign Policy Major Successes
Note: The first point has been covered in the main article also
- The French Revolution began in 1789 and, in 1792, war broke out in Europe between France and several European powers including Great Britain. Although there was pro-French sentiment in America, George Washington believed that the United States was too weak and unstable to fight another war. He thus issued the Proclamation of Neutrality on April 22, 1793 that declared the United States neutral in the war in Europe. The Proclamation was formalized into law by the Neutrality Act of 1794, which made it illegal for an American citizen to wage war against any country at peace with the United States. The Neutrality Act has been updated but remains in force till date. George Washington thus kept the young nation out of war and set a key precedent of America being neutral in foreign quarrels.
- There was discord between America and Spain regarding the western and southern borders of the United States. On October 27, 1795, “Treaty of Friendship, Limits, and Navigation Between Spain and the United States” was signed between the two nations. Thomas Pinckney negotiated the treaty for the United States and Don Manuel de Godoy represented Spain. Known as the Pinckney’s Treaty, it was an important diplomatic success for the United States. It resolved territorial disputes between the two nations. Moreover, it granted the American ships free navigation of the Mississippi River and duty-free transport through the port of New Orleans, then under Spanish control.
- Before United States became independent, piracy was not an issue as the Royal Navy protected American vessels. With the disbanding of the Continental Navy post independence, American ships had no protection against intervention from foreign powers. By 1793, the loss of American ships to the Algerian pirates had become a serious issue. To counter it, President Washington asked Congress to approve a bill authorizing the creation of a naval force to protect American merchant vessels. Naval Act of 1794 was signed by him on March 27, 1794. It authorized the creation of a fleet of six ships which eventually became the first ships of the present-day United States Navy.
Foreign Policy Major Failures
- After the Revolution, United States and Britain had a number of unresolved issues which were a cause of fiction between the two nations. While British exports flooded the American markets, American exports were blocked by British trade restrictions and tariffs. The British still occupied northern forts which they had agreed to vacate in the Treaty of Paris (1783). The last major issue was Britain’s impressments of American sailors and seizure of naval and military supplies. As the French Revolution broke out, American politicians became divided into pro-British and pro-French factions. Fearing the repercussions of a war with Britain, Washington sent pro-British Chief Justice John Jay to negotiate with the British Government. This resulted in a treaty between the two nations on November 19, 1794, which became known as the Jay’s Treaty. This treaty is considered very unfavorable for the United States. It addressed few U.S. interests, and ultimately granted Britain additional rights. Its only gains were surrender of the northwestern posts, which had already been agreed in the Treaty of Paris; and granting U.S. the “most favored nation” status commercially. All other outstanding issues, including the Canadian-Maine boundary, compensation for pre-revolutionary debts and British seizures of American ships were left unresolved by the Jay’s Treaty. Further, it had negative effects for the remainder of Washington’s term as President. These include the French harassing American ships claiming that U.S. was in alliance with their enemy.
Main Sources:-
Knott, Stephen. “George Washington: Domestic Affairs”. Miller Center.
Hickman, Kennedy (March 06, 2018). “Northwest Indian War: Battle of Fallen Timbers”. ThoughtCo.
Norton Smith, Richard (1994). “The Surprising George Washington”. National Archives.
“Congress Enacts First Fugitive Slave Law”. History.
E. Ambrose, Stephen (November 2002). “Founding Fathers and Slaveholders”. Smithsonian Magazine.
Pruitt, Sarah (March 7, 2019). “The Founding Fathers Feared Political Factions Would Tear the Nation Apart”. History.
McMaster, John Bach (2006). “A History of the People of the United States: From the Revolution to the Civil War”. pp. 539–540.
Knott, Stephen. “George Washington: Foreign Affairs”. Miller Center.
“Neutrality Proclamation, 22 April 1793”. Founders Online. National Archives.
“Formation of the U.S. Navy”. The Mariners’ Museum.
“John Jay’s Treaty, 1794–95”. Office of the Historian. U.S. Department of State.
#9 HIS FAREWELL ADDRESS HAS HAD A LONG AND CONTINUING INFLUENCE
After Washington decided that he would not seek re-election for a third term, he decided to write his farewell address with the help of his friend and Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton. It is to be noted that the initial draft of this address had been prepared by James Madison in 1792. Washington’s farewell address was first published in the American Daily Advertiser on September 19, 1796. The 7,641-word document may be divided into three main principles. Washington first stresses on the importance of unity in the nation reminding Americans that “the Independence and Liberty you possess are the work of joint counsels, and joint efforts, of common dangers, sufferings, and successes.” He then warns of the dangers of putting party and regional loyalty above the interests of the nation. Finally, he states his belief that it is in the interest of the United States to stay clear of foreign disputes as it was the safest way to maintain national unity and stability. Washington’s Farewell Address is considered to be one of the most important documents in American history. The recommendations made by him have exerted a strong and continuing influence on American statesmen and politicians.
Main Sources:-
Pruitt, Sarah (Feb 10, 2020). “George Washington Warned Against Political Infighting in His Farewell Address“. History.
“Religion and the Founding of the American Republic”. Library of Congress.
#10 HE IS REGARDED AS ONE OF THE GREATEST AMERICAN PRESIDENTS
Twice during the American Revolution, George Washington was granted virtually unlimited power to carry on the war effort. He shouldered the responsibility and gave the authority back as soon as possible. Following the formal end of hostilities in the Revolutionary War, Washington resigned his commission as commander-in-chief and went back to his home. He did this when he was in a position to take solitary control of the new nation and become its dictator. Then, after becoming President of the United States, Washington willingly resigned after two-terms inaugurating the democratic traditions of the United States. It was Washington’s ability to cede power which sets him apart from other great leaders. When he resigned from presidency, King George III proclaimed him “the greatest character of the age.” Due to his manifold leadership in the formation of the United States, Washington is often referred to as the “Father of His Country”. Along with Abraham Lincoln and Franklin D. Roosevelt, he is usually ranked among the top three presidents by historians and scholars. In the Murray-Blessing 1988 survey of historians, Washington was ranked 3rd; in the poll conducted by The Wall Street Journal of professors of history, law and political science in 2005, he was ranked 1st; and according to a Rasmussen poll conducted in 2007, he ranked 1st with 94% Americans viewing him favorably.
Main Sources:-
Spalding, Matthew. (Feb 5, 2007). “The Man Who Would Not Be King“. The Heritage Foundation.
“George Washington resigns as commander in chief“. History.
Nichols, Curt. “The Presidential Ranking Game: Critical Review and Some New Discoveries”. Baylor University.
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